![]() ![]() Andre Gunder Frank and Barry Gills have argued that the entire Afro-Eurasian region belonged to a single "world-system" from perhaps as early as 2000 B.C.E. World historians are becoming increasingly aware of the underlying unity of Afro-Eurasian history. The extent of this unity can best be appreciated by contrasting the history of Afro-Eurasia with that of pre-Columbian America. As a result, despite its great diversity, the history of Afro-Eurasia has always preserved an underlying unity, which was expressed in common technologies, styles, cultures, and religions, even disease patterns. The many trans-ecological exchanges mediated by the Silk Roads linked all regions of the Afro-Eurasian landmass, from its agrarian civilizations to its many stateless communities of woodland foragers and steppe pastoralists, into a single system of exchanges that is several millennia old. A clear awareness of this system of trans-ecological exchanges should force us to revise our understanding of the age, the significance, and the geography of the Silk Roads.įurther, an appreciation of the double role of the Silk Roads affects our understanding of the history of the entire Afro-Eurasian region. The second of these systems of exchange, though less well known, predated the more familiar "trans-civilizational" exchanges, and was equally integral to the functioning of the entire system. Less well understood is the trans-ecological role of the Silk Roads - the fact that they also exchanged goods and ideas between the pastoralist and agrarian worlds. The role played by the Silk Roads in exchanging goods, technologies, and ideas between regions of agrarian civilization is well understood. #Systeme monde fullAs a result, it has failed to understand their antiquity, or to grasp their full importance in Eurasian history. Modern historiography has not fully appreciated the ecological complexity of the Silk Roads. ![]() The three world-systems identified probably fused into a single world-system in the first century A.D., when the rise of exchange networks led to an interdependence of their various regions. The rise of new centers in the western Mediterranean region accompanied a growing integration of Europe into the Western system. From the third century B.C., changes in western Asia, China, and India and the extension of exchange networks favored the opening of land routes across central Asia and maritime routes in the Indian Ocean and China Seas. ![]() An Indian world-system developed, which partly merged with the western system from the fourth century B.C. A number of empires arose in western Asia, which aimed at controlling spaces and peoples between the Mediterranean and the Persian Gulf. The growth of networks and states was furthered by technological, institutional, and ideological innovations. The recessions that we observe stemmed partly from climatic deteriorations on varying scales around 800, 400, and 200 B.C. This article argues that in the first millennium B.C., these two world-systems experienced three long cycles marked by hegemonic transitions between competing regions. before a new phase of integrations occurred in these areas (western Asia, northern Africa, and southern Europe on the one hand China on the other). He chose “force” to name (mass × velocity), distinguished from “accelerative force,” and “motive force.” To sum up, the three reprints of Mécanique céleste in the 19 th century reflect its high status in France, and to some extent elsewhere a locus classicus for celestial mechanics on a scale unmatched since Newton, and also a valuable source for a cluster of important mathematical theories and methods.Hypothesized Western and Eastern world-systems of the Late Bronze Age collapsed in the twelfth and eleventh centuries B.C. Instead, Laplace exhibited the frequent continental preferences, especially in Lagrange's mechanics, for d’Alembert's principle and those of least action and virtual velocities. However, Newton's laws and notions were not given the prominence that might be expected. Laplace's molecular physics was not followed by more successful practitioners of mathematical physics: Fourier on heat diffusion from the late 1800s, and A.J. Laplace wished to derive celestial mechanics from the law of universal gravitation with Newton's inverse-square law of attraction. The Exposition gave a non-technical account of the mechanics and related physics, and gained a wide readership over several editions. The Traité was an authoritative statement on celestial and planetary mechanics of its time, and also an important source on several new mathematical methods. ![]()
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